What deforestation means
Deforestation is the permanent conversion of forest to another land use, such as farmland, pasture, mining or settlement. It is different from temporary loss, for example when trees are harvested and then replanted or allowed to regrow, although the line can be blurry in practice. Forest degradation is a related problem: the forest remains, but is thinner or less diverse because of selective logging, repeated fire or fragmentation.
The facts differ greatly between regions. Tropical forests in South America, Africa and Southeast Asia attract much of the attention because they hold great biodiversity and large stores of carbon, but forests are also cleared or degraded in temperate and boreal regions, and some regions are regrowing forest. Official figures on forest area and loss are published by international agencies and national governments, and they change from year to year, so check a current source rather than relying on a number quoted elsewhere.
The main drivers
Studies generally agree that the biggest driver of tropical deforestation is the expansion of agriculture. The details vary by place.
- Cattle ranching. In parts of South America, clearing land for pasture is a major cause of forest loss.
- Commodity crops. Soy (largely used for animal feed), oil palm, cocoa, coffee, rubber and others can be grown on land cleared from forest, especially where enforcement is weak.
- Small-scale farming. In some regions, families clear small plots to grow food, which can be a significant share of local loss. Their choices are often shaped by poverty and a lack of alternatives, and these cases call for different solutions than industrial clearance.
- Logging. Commercial timber extraction can be legal and managed, or illegal and unmanaged. Logging roads also open previously remote forest to settlers and other pressures.
- Fuelwood and charcoal. In some regions, wood is a major household energy source.
- Mining, energy and infrastructure. Roads, dams, mines and pipelines clear land directly and open up access.
- Fire. Fires set to clear land can spread out of control, and drought and climate change can raise the risk. In some boreal and temperate forests, wildfire and pests are also major causes of loss.
Many of these drivers connect to markets elsewhere in the world, because a share of the beef, soy, palm oil, timber and other products from cleared land is exported. The connection is not always direct, though: a lot of clearing supplies local or national markets.
Effects on climate
Trees and forest soils store carbon, and clearing forests, especially by burning, releases some of it as carbon dioxide. This is one reason forests are discussed as carbon sinks. Forest loss therefore adds to the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, while standing forests help to keep carbon out of it.
Forests also influence local and regional climate. Trees release water vapour, which can affect rainfall patterns and cool the air nearby. How strongly this works, and how far the effects reach, differs by region and is an active area of research. Some scientists have raised concerns that large-scale clearing in some areas could change rainfall enough to make forest recovery harder, but the exact thresholds are uncertain.
Replanting does not simply reverse the damage. Young trees take decades to build up carbon stores, and plantations of a single species store carbon differently from mature mixed forest.
Effects on water, soil and wildlife
- Water. Forests slow rainfall, hold soil in place and help regulate river flows. Clearing can increase run-off, erosion and sediment in rivers, and in some places raises flood risk.
- Soil. Tropical soils are often thin in nutrients and can lose fertility quickly once the forest cover is removed, which is one reason cleared land is sometimes abandoned after a few years.
- Wildlife. Forests are home to a large share of the world’s land-living species. Clearing destroys habitat, and fragmentation leaves isolated patches that can support fewer species over time. Indigenous peoples and local communities who depend on forests are also affected. The idea that habitat loss and nature near home are linked is explored in the discussion of local biodiversity.
What consumers can and cannot do
Individual shoppers cannot stop deforestation on their own, and it is easy to overstate what a purchase can achieve. The most effective measures involve laws, enforcement, land rights, company supply chain rules and funding for forest protection. But consumer choices can still contribute in a few ways, and these are sensible to consider with some scepticism.
- Eat less of the foods most linked to land clearance. Beef is often cited as having a larger land footprint per portion than many other foods, and a share of soy goes into animal feed. Cutting back on some animal products, without needing to overhaul your whole diet, is covered in the piece on eating less meat. The size of the effect depends on where the product comes from.
- Choose paper and wood products carefully. Use less, choose recycled where it meets your needs, and look for credible certification for new timber. The practical side of reducing paper is in the article on paper consumption.
- Buy secondhand or reclaimed wood. Secondhand furniture and reclaimed materials avoid new harvesting.
- Treat labels with care. Certification schemes exist for timber, palm oil and other commodities, but they differ in rigour and coverage, and some critics argue that gaps remain. What these marks mean and where they fall short is covered in the guide to eco-label certifications. Vague claims such as “sustainably sourced” with no explanation are a form of the problem described in the article on greenwashing claims.
- Reduce waste. Food that is never eaten still needed land to grow it.
- Support organisations and policy. Donations to forest conservation groups, support for stronger supply chain laws, and questions to companies about their sourcing may have more influence than any one purchase, though results vary and it is worth checking that an organisation is transparent about its work.
Be careful with simple fixes
- Tree-planting schemes. The quality varies greatly. Survival rates, species choice, location and long-term protection all matter, and planting is not a licence to ignore emissions elsewhere.
- “Deforestation-free” claims. The phrase can mean different things, such as no clearing after a certain date or only certain commodities being covered. Ask what the claim covers.
- Substitution. Replacing one commodity with another can shift pressure elsewhere. A product that avoids palm oil, for example, may use another oil that requires more land per tonne.
A realistic picture
Forest loss is driven by economics, politics and everyday demand, often far from where products are bought. The trade-offs around land are looked at more broadly in the guide to sustainable land use. Consumer choices are one lever among several, and they are most useful when combined with support for stronger rules and protection of forests that still stand.